6.01 Effectiveness of Computer Technologies
We live in a world which is defined by technical change and social challenge. The children in school today have never known a world where things aren't "on demand." Marc Prensky (2005) coined the term digital native to refer to today's students. Today's students are fluent in the digital language of computers, video games, and the Internet. Many of today's teachers who who were not born into the digital world, referred to by Prensky as digital immigrants are asked to prepare students for a future world whose citizens will have to combine old and new skills and old and new knowledge in ways we cannot fully imagine [Prensky, 2005]. Therefore, learning to apply these technologies in useful ways is an essential skill for today's educators. Over the past four decades, schools have invested enormous amounts of money and time into technology. In 1999-2000, over $6 billion was spent on technology in K-12 schools nationwide [Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 2000]. The federal No Child Left Behind legislation establishes that technology literacy is a core foundation for learning. It calls for academic excellence in the context of 21st century technologies [NCREL, 2003]. In the state of Pennsylvania, Governor Rendell recognizes the connection between technology, education and the economy and has taken steps, such as the Classrooms for the Future initiative, to ensure that students in the state of Pennsylvania are prepared to compete in this global economy [Zahorchack, 2006].
School districts in the State of Pennsylvania are required to prepare three-year technology plans. It would be to the advantage of the district then to study current research related to effectiveness of computer technologies when developing those plans. According to research, what are the best practices that benefit students in the areas of reading & writing, intervention & remediation, problem solving & higher level skills? What is working in other districts?
During the past 20 years, the skills that are needed to be successful in a global economy have drastically changed, but the skills taught in school have changed very little. [Murname & Levy, 1996]. Therefore it is important to not only look at technology available, but how these technologies are used within the classroom. Although technology can be utilized to motivate students, thereby improving basic skills and knowledge, it is most influential when integrated with curriculum and assessment. A study of third and eighth-grade students conducted by Boster, Meyer, Roberto, & Inge (2002) in Virginia of teachers using Unitedstreaming(TM) video clips in math and social studies classrooms showed that the use of such video clips have a high probability of student achievement when they meet several factors. The researchers found success when teachers used video clips that were selected to align with the state-adopted curriculum standards, were used during the time span allocated for instruction related to the standards for which the video clips are aligned, had included exam items corresponding to each of the curriculum standards, and were taught by instructors trained in ways to use and integrate this technology with curriculum and instruction [Boster et al., 2002].
There are a variety of software that assist with the basic processes of transcription and sentence generation, including spelling checkers, speech synthesis, prediction, and grammar and style checkers. There are also many applications that support the cognitive processes of planning and review including prompting programs, outlining and semantic mapping software, and multimedia applications. In general, the research on word processors and student writing conducted during the 1980’s and early 1990’s suggests many ways in which writing on computers may help students produce better work. [Goldberg, et. al, 2003] Throughout the 1990’s, technology has developed at an astonishing pace. Word processing technologies, are easier to use and are no longer the classroom novelty they once were. Many studies have been done that show that use of word processing software in writing instruction may provide lasting educational benefits to users because it encourages students to be free from the mechanics of writing and allows them to be more free with their ideas. In studies that compared two groups of students receiving identical writing instruction where only one group was allowed to use word processing for writing assignments, the word processing groups (especially weaker writers) improved the quality of their writing. Although student attitudes toward writing did not always improve, the students who used word processing programs did write longer documents as compared to the other group. [Bangert-Drowns, R. L, 1993] Brophy and colleagues created software to enhance literacy skills including comprehension and decoding activities. This software was used with young, at-risk children to determine the impact the software had on these students' reading skills. At the end of 3 months subjects were given a standardized test to assess their overall reading comprehension. Children in the experimental group, who used the Multimedia Environments that Organize and Support Text (MOST) environment, gained more on the auditory and language skills portions of the standardized tests. [Mayfield-Stewart, 1994] Overall, studies in these areas indicate that using technology can enhance students' language development as well as their achievement in reading, writing (as noted above), and spelling. Specifically, the studies show that the use of technology can help students gain a variety of language skills including understanding the relationships among the parts of the English language, classification, and reading comprehension; sound discrimination, sound-symbol correspondence, listening comprehension, decoding in context, and creating oral narratives; phonological awareness; reading achievement; and spelling. [Sivin-Kachala & Bialo, 2000]
Technology can enable the development of higher order thinking skills when students are taught to apply the process of problem solving and are then allowed opportunities to apply technology in development of solutions. Vendlinski & Stevens (2002) stated that "the diffusion of computer technology into American classrooms offers new opportunities to evaluate student learning and a rich, new source of data upon which to make inferences about the formative interventions that will improve learning, but valid formative assessment is an essential element in improving both student learning and the professional development of educators. They found that students using IMMEX™, a computerized simulation would transition between these strategy types over time, and be able to apply chemistry content to a real-world problem as a result. [Vendlinski & Stevens, 2002]. Richard J. Coley (1997), education policy analyst at the policy information center at the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J noted that the Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) pull-out program, developed in the early 1980s to build student's thinking skills by exposure to a combination of computers, drama, and Socratic dialogue, enabled disadvantaged fourth through seventh graders to achieve:twice the national average gains on reading and math test scores, honor roll status for 10 to 15 percent of the students in 1994, suggesting a transfer of the students' cognitive development to learning specific content, and increased performance on measures of reading comprehension, metacognition, writing, components of IQ, transfer to novel tasks, and grade point average [Coley, et al., 1997].
Students given the opportunity to work in cooperatively and problem solve with computers show increases in test scores. Brush (1997) examined the effectiveness of the Jostens which is today known as Compass Learning Systems. He looked at the mathematics integrated learning curriculum when employed within the context of a cooperative-learning environment. While two of the math classes studied emphasized cooperative learning activities, the third class emphasized traditional, individualized learning activities. Brush (1997) found that those students who used the program in the cooperative environment showed superior performance on standardized math inventories, compared to those students who worked in an independent environment. The cooperative group also showed better attitudes towards math, the program utilized, and group activities in general. It is important to note that the social interactions between cooperative students and teachers tended to be more content driven than interactions between individual students and teachers. [Brush, 1997]. It can be concluded therefore, that technology also enables the development of higher order thinking skills when students are given the opportunity to work in collaborative groups while using computers to solve problems.
There are different approaches to using media and technology in schools. Students can learn "from" media and technology, and they can learn "with" media and technology. Many of the examples listed above are ways students can learn "from" media and technology-- instructional television, computer-based instruction, or integrated learning systems. Students learning "with" technology implies their ability to use cognitive tools within constructivist learning environments to create a new outcome. Many studies suggest that American youth are turning more and more toward the Internet as their source of information and spend more time with digital media than any other single activity. Levin and Arafeh (2002) found, for example, that 71 percent of students pointed to the Internet as their primary resource for completing homework assignments. These same students actually regarded the Internet as more relevant to their daily lives than other forms of information. They rely on the Internet to help them do their schoolwork and can describe dozens of different education-related uses of the Internet. They use the Internet as a virtual: textbook and reference library, tutor and shortcut, study group, counselor, and locker. [Levin & Arafeh, 2002] In the same study it was stated that many schools have not recognized, or responded to, the new ways students communicate and access information over the Internet, a finding which suggests that many schools are behind.
Not all students learn the same. Differentiated instruction is a concept that is familiar to the educator. It applies an approach to teaching and learning so that students have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas. Based on this understanding, a traditional classroom that adheres to structure and allows for students to work only independently on projects and work benefits few students. "Teachers who differentiate in their instruction begin by developing a broad and thorough understanding of their students, all of whom enter classrooms with varying interests, readiness levels, talents, and knowledge." [Keck, 2005.] Many classroom teachers are providing rich, diverse experiences that teach concepts and skills through a variety of presentations and projects which capitalize on the main idea behind Differentiated Instruction: teaching a variety of topics in a variety of ways to reach as many learners while meeting individual needs along the way. This however is a challenge, finding activities which can individually engage learners at their independent working level. "Computers can be a valuable and vital tool when combined with Gardner's Seven Multiple Intelligences to enable educators to reach students with a variety of learning styles." [ Davis, 1991] There are a variety of ways that each of the Multiple Intelligences can be trained and supported by the use of computers and each of these intelligences provides for differentiation of instruction. Web quests are another valuable way to ensure that students’ needs are being met.
6.02 Influence of Effectiveness on Use
Will the use of computers in classrooms fundamentally change how we educate children? And can educational technology lead to improved student achievement? The most important understading about technology use in the classrooom is that it should not be a replacement for good practice by professional educators. Richard J. Coley (1997), stated this well nearly ten years ago in the Policy Information Report for the Educational Testing Service.
"The presence of technology in the classroom does not automatically inspire teachers to rethink their teaching or students to adopt new modes of learning. Although computers may make the work more efficient and more fun, students’ use of computers for various tasks — like writing, drawing, or graphing — does not tend to radically change what they would have done without computers. Computer technology may provide powerful learning opportunities, but both teachers and students need to learn how to take advantage of them. Second, no single task or activity has profound and lasting effects on learning by itself. Rather, it is the whole culture of a classroom environment that can have important effects on learning." [Coley, et al., 1997]
Current research on how technology use has the potential to improve student learning and achievement can offer great insight into the creation and management of an effective effective instructional technology program. Jamie McKenzie (2001) in his article "How Teachers Learn Technology Best" stated it best when he wrote " In some places, eager planners have "put the cart before the horse" - emphasizing the purchase and installation of equipment without providing sufficient funding for the staff learning required to win a reasonable return on the huge investments being made" [McKenzie, 2001]. In every study it was not only the technology provided to students that leads to success, but the teacher training to implement this technology. Therefore providing new and better technology simply to say that it is available is not nearly enough in this age of a learning culture of technology natives. Teachers must be trained in the skills to effectively integrate these tools into their current curriculum. However many schools are investing in the "stuff" without the "support". There are many resources available to help in planning to help teachers. Researchers are finding that poor access to new technology training and inadequate professional development are barriers to teachers’ technology integration in classrooms.
Technology leaders have a critical role in ensuring not only that the best researched plans are in place, that the best hardware and software to meet district goals are purchased, but that they provide opportunities for their staff to learn how to integrate these skills and equipment to provide the best instruction for the students. One way our district has strived to ensure that teachers are immersed in the culture of technology is to offer summer professional development workshops. The complaint from the teachers is that it is not enough to learn a skill, they need support to put that skill into practice. This year, the offerings have moved beyond teachers learning basic technology skills to integrating these skills within the curriculum (click HERE to see descriptions of the courses being offered this summer. One area, related to the research, on which we are focusing is how teachers can use Unitedstreaming(TM) in more effective ways within the classroom. Research has proven that teachers with access to Unitedstreaming have the tools in their hands to conduct their own research as to the efficacy of technology in their classrooms. Therefore during the summer training , teachers would be encouraged to compare currrent instructional strategies with the use of technology and given examples of how to do so. One such example would be for teachers to assign to their students the reading of a passage from a book, have them respond to prompts, and take an objective exam to test their retention. Next, teachers Unitedstreaming to access resources on the same subject area to compare. In addition to the summer offerings, the district is committed to offering ongoing staff development programs throughout the school year.
Here are some sample training for the areas as listed above:
Technology to improve basic skills and knowledge: During the curriculum renewal process, software to reinforce the math, science and health curriculums were purchased.
Technology to assist reading and writing performance: Use of KidBiz and TeenBiz reading and writing performance and Read 180 are two examples that Upper Merion is using to support reading and writing with technology.
Technology to enhance problem solving abilities: This summer teachers were trained in creating webquests for their students.
Technology can be utilized to develop research skills: Research skills using technology is part of the library curriculum k-12. At each grade level a technology research project is integrated as part of the grade level curriculum.
Utilizing Technology as a resource to differentiate instruction: Nettrekker is a search engine that is used to differentiate reading levels for research materials. SMARTBoards are also being installed in many of the schools to help teachers reach a variety of levels and differentiate instruction.
REFERENCES
Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (Spring 1993) "The Word Processor as an Instructional Tool: A Meta-analysis of Word Processing in Writing Instruction," Review of Educational Research, 63(1): 69–93.
Boster, F. J., Meyer, G. S., Roberto, A. J., & Inge, C. C. (2002). A Report on the Effect of the Unitedstreaming(TM) Application on Educational Performance. Cometrika, Inc., Baseline Research, LLC., & Longwood University http://www.unitedlearning.com/images/streaming/evaluation.pdf
Brush, T. A. (1997). "The effects on student achievement and attitudes when using integrated learning systems with cooperative pairs." Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(1), 51–64.
Coley, R., Cradler, J. & Engel, P. (1997). Computers in Classrooms: The Status of Technology in U.S. Schools. 66 Pp. Educational Testing Service. Princeton: New Jersey. Retrieved May 30, 2006, from http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICCOMPCLSS.pdf
Davis, Russel. (1991). Learning How To Learn: Technology, the Seven Multiple Intelligences and Learning. California: ERIC Clearinghouse (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338214)
Goldberg, A., Russell, M., & Cook, A. (2003). "The effect of computers on student writing: A Metaanalysis of Studies from 1992 to 2002," Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 2(1). Retrieved May 21, 2006, from http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=jtla
Keck, Susan, and Scott Kinney. (2005) "Creating a Differentiated Classroom." Learning and Leading with Technology. 33(1).
Levin, D. & Arafeh, S. (2002). The digital disconnect: The widening gap between internet-savvy students and their schools. Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://207.21.232.103/pdfs/PIP_Schools_Internet_Report.pdf.
Mayfield-Stewart, Cynthia; And Others. (1994). Evaluation of Multimedia Instruction on Learning and Transfer. New Orleans, LA: Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED375166)
McKenzie, J. (2001). How teachers learn technology best. From Now On: The Educational Technology Journal, 10(6). Retrieved on June 1, 2006 from http://www.fno.org/mar01/howlearn.html
Murnane,Richard J. and Frank Levy. Teaching the New Basic Skills: Principles for Educating Children to Thrive in a Changing Economy. New York: The Free Press, 1996.
NCREL. EnGauge® 21st Century Skills For 21st Century Learners. 2003 Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/skillsbrochure.pdf
Pearson, David P., Richard E. Ferdig, Robert L. Blomeyer, Jr., and Juan Moran (2005). The Effects of Technology on Reading Performance in the Middle-School Grades: A Meta-Analysis With Recommendations for Policy (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED489534 )Prensky, Mark. "Listen to the Natives." Educational Leadership. Volume 63, Number 4: pages 8-13. December/January 2005-2006. Retrieved May 17, 2006, from http://www.ascd.org/authors/ed_lead/el200512_prensky.html
Sivin-Kachala, J., & Bialo, E. (2000). 2000 Research Report on the Effectiveness of Technology in Schools (7th ed.). Washington, DC: Software and Information Industry Association. Retrieved May 18, 2006, from http://www.siia.net/estore/REF-00-summary.pdf
Vendlinski, T. & Stevens, R. (2002). "Assessing student problem-solving skills with complex computer-based tasks," Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 1(3). Retrieved May 31, 2006, from http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=jtla
Zahorchak, Gerard. "Message from the Secretary of Education." Technology & Education In Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Competes. February, 2006. Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://www.pde.state.pa.us/ed_tech/lib/ed_tech/BETNewsletterVersion4.pdf